Plants & Human Affairs

Plants & Human Affairs (BIOL106) - Stephen G. Saupe, Ph.D.; Biology Department, College of St. Benedict/St. John's University, Collegeville, MN 56321; ssaupe@csbsju.edu; http://www.employees.csbsju.edu/ssaupe

The Botany of Columbus Day

"Sublime irony lies in the fact that, in seeking a fast route to the 'pepper islands,' Columbus got the wrong islands, named the wrong Indians, and found the wrong peppers".

J. Kingsbury 1992

I. General

born 1451, Genoa, Italy
Cristofor Colombo
changed name to Cristobal Colon after he moved to Portugal
well versed in seamanship & navigation
in Lisbon, among Portuguese and Castilians – language of seaman, studied Latin to read geographical works, and mathematics and astronomy for navigation
married Dona Felipa Peretrello e Moniz, daughter of Henry the Navigator (1394 – 1460). Gave him access to the charts and logs of his Father-in-law.
often sailed down west coast of Africa, to Azores, Madeira, Canary Islands
major contribution – he was the first recorded European to sail to the New World.

II. A Myth Debunked
A popular misconception is that Columbus discovered that the Earth was round. However, this was known long before – in fact since the ancient Greeks. This flat earth myth/misconception was apparently created by Washington Irving in his biography of Columbus. There are several lines of evidence that suggested the earth is a sphere (Rickey, 1992):

Pythagoras (560 – 480 BC) was probably the first to report. His evidence is not known but perhaps due to the belief that the sphere is the most perfect of solid figures. Or, more likely, he saw ships "hull down" as they reached the horizon, or saw "mountains rising" as approached.
Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) observed the Earth's shadow was round during an eclipse. Also, noted that different stars are visible in different locations (i.e., Greece & Egypt). He concluded the earth is small since only a short distance was required to observe this difference.
Erastothenes (276 – 195 BC) calculated size of earth (once it roundness was accepted) based on several assumptions/observations: (a) earth is spherical, (b) rays of sun are parallel to the earth; (c) in Aswan on the summer solstice a vertical pole casts no shadow but in Alexandria the angle cast by a shadow was 1/50 of a circle; (c) Alexandria is directly south of Aswan; (d) the distance between Aswan and Alexandria is 5,000 stadia (about 10 stadia/mile). Therefore, the circumference of the earth was 5000 x 50 = 250,000 stadia. Or, the circumference is approximately 25,000 miles which, considering the error in some of the assumptions, is remarkably accurate.
Columbus had heard stories of strange trees that floated up on the west coast of Africa and knew prevailing winds from west in winter; Columbus knew fall winds blew to the east and seas were generally calm.

As an aside, the reality is that Columbus never actually proved the Earth is round because he never reached Asia.

III. How Long Would the Journey Be?
The main question for Columbus was not whether the world was round, but rather, how far was it to reach the West Indies? He calculated that the distance was about 2,400 nautical miles (in actuality from Azores to Japan it is about 10,600 nautical miles). His estimates were based on the presumed size of known land masses and Eratosthenes measurement (estimated a degree to be about 59.5 nautical miles). Thus, if assumed the known world covered about half the globe (i.e., 180 degrees) as suggested by Ptolemy and increase the estimate for Asia based on Marco Polo's travels, Columbus assumed the distance from his starting point in the Canaries to the West Indies was about 68 degrees of ocean. At latitude 28 degree where he planned to sail, Columbus adjusted his calculation to 40 nautical miles per degree. This yielded distance of 60 x 60 = 2400 nautical miles. Columbus presented his idea to the King of Portugal and his Maritime Advisory Committee. Since Columbus' estimates disagreed with best ones of the day, they denied his proposal. Finally Columbus convinced King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to let him go.

Although his mileage estimates were off, Columbus estimated the voyage would take 21 – 28 days (depending on winds). It took him 33 days. As a result, because he completed his trip according to predicted plans, he assumed that he landed in the West Indies. This is a great example of a non-causal correlation.

IV. The Egg Trick
There is a popular story that Columbus marveled a crowd by positioning an egg vertically on end without crushing it. This story was even recorded in the 1949 film, "Christopher Columbus" starring Frederic March. How did he do it? Presumably Columbus either: (a) hard-boiled the egg; (b) cracked the egg surreptitiously; or (c) placed the egg in a pile of salt. There is some disagreement over the significance of the story – was it to allay fears that the earth was round and could stay in one place or simply that even difficult things can be done if you know the trick.

V. The First Voyage

Set sail with 90 men on May 3, 1492

left from Palos, southern coast of Spain

3 ships – Nina, Pinta (Pinzon captain) and Santa Maria (Columbus, captain)

route – south to Canary Islands then across Atlantic

rudder broke on Pinta, spent several weeks on the Canaries making repairs. Left the Canaries on 6 September

On 7 October had gone about 2400 nautical miles, which was further than expected. Thought had sailed too far, so decided to sail WSW to follow flocks of migrating birds. Some birds landed on the ships. Columbus noted that they were land birds, not marine birds which suggested that they were near land. If Columbus had sailed earlier or just a few days later would have missed this migration ("great river of birds"). Shorebirds fly 2500 miles between eastern Canada and South America. What if Columbus hadn't seen the birds? It's not clear, but he certainly might have turned back or continued straight west toward Florida. Among the birds were White-rumped sandpipers, Golden plovers, and the now extinct, Eskimo curlew

landed in San Salvador; named in honor of the Holy Savior who guided their voyage

he ritually claimed each new island/territory for Spain

Hispaniola

land sighted evening of October 11, 1492. Columbus reneged on his promise to provide a pension to the sailor who first sighted land.

made three additional voyages

VI. Columbus the Botanist
He wasn't a good botanist. "I am the saddest man in the world for not knowing what kinds of things these are because I am sure that they are valuable" (log dated October 21, 1492)

VII. Algae and Columbus

A. Sargassum

Columbus described "large patches of yellowish green weed"

Sargasso Sea – North Atlantic between West Indies and Azores. Columbus had probably heard about it, but was first to traverse it completely

two species of Sargassum (S. natans, S. fluitans) - algae.

complex community of animals associated with it and take shelter

floating alga, unusual for algae, normally attached to substrate, no roots, holdfast

Sargassum able to absorb nutrients while drifting

complex ecosystem in the Sargassum mats

asexual reproduction is well developed, there is no sexual reproduction

This sighting suggested to Columbus that:

land was near – not true (but probably was comforting to the sailors) assumed from "I saw a great deal of weed today from rocks that lie to the west. I take this to mean we are near land." (Sept 17, 1492). "We saw much weed of the kind I have already mentioned...In a way this weed comforted me, since they have concluded it must come from some nearby land."(log Sept 20)
worried about getting stuck – impossible but he steered clear
worried about getting wrecked on rocks (since most algae grew on rocks) sailed through it from Sept 16 – Oct 3

B. "Withered old weed" & "new little fresh weed with …fruits"
"There is more weed, but it is withered and old. There is a little fresh weed that bears something like fruit" - Log entry on October 3. Another entry on October 8 "Very fresh weed has been seen." Suggests one of attached species that had broken free. This is more evidence of land.

The fruits probably were float bladders, from an alga like Fucus or more likely Turbinaria, because it remains alive longer.

VIII. Plants Columbus Found
Columbus was looking for spices such as black pepper (highly prized), ginger, rhubarb, cardamom, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace and cloves. However, he found a much different array of plants.

A. Aloe

Columbus thought he had found "aloe" (Aloe barbadensis) – many products especially skin conditioners, cosmetics, burns, laxative.

Reported finding something, was probably Agave – similar in appearance, but much larger and not as fleshy (Agave missionum, A bahamense).

B. Tobacco

Columbus wrote in his logs, "[the natives]…brought us…many other things, including a kind of dry leaf that they hold in great esteem" (Oct 12) and "my two men found many people who were going to different villages, men and women, carrying a charred hollow wood in their hand, and herbs to smoke in this wood, which they are in the habit of doing".

the word tobacco is from Arawak

smoked through nostrils in hollow tube, like a bamboo-cane

C. Capsicum peppers

C. annuum bell, paprika, chile, red, cayenne

C. frutescens – tabasco pepper

black pepper – Piper nigrum, berries, harvested, fermented, dried

found something that tasted similar – capsicum.

"there is also much aji, which is their pepper: no one eats without it because it is very healthy."

antibacterial properties, antioxidants

D. Chocolate

IX. Consequence of the Voyage

A. General.

"Europeanization" of America

intended – to provide explorers with familiar food

weaken resistance of native peoples

initiated trend toward biological homogeneity

around 60 million years ago earth as we know it began to take shape

NA separate for this time. The Bering land bridge submerged about 10,000 years ago. Geographic isolation led to difference in life forms.

then introduction of species – house sparrows, horses, carp

many species introduced intentionally, others introduced accidentally – hitchhike in folds of clothes, mud on shoes, etc.

many plants very successful (i.e., Kentucky bluegrass, dandelions, daisies)

B. Plants

major shift in diet

corn for wheat swap – took corn home on first voyage. returned with wheat on second

some typical American crops – corn, tobacco, squash, beans, peppers, potato

native/introduced/naturalized

go over sheet with crops listed

C. Animals

protein source – major increase in animal protein available in diet. "Europeans in American have possibly been the best-fed people in the world, a fact that has motivated more people to migrate to the New World than all the religious and ideological forces combined" (Crosby)

power source – extensive agriculture, could pull plow through heavy soil. windmills, waterwheels, carry burdens

New World	Old World
dog llama alpaca guinea pig, turkey, Muscovy duck no horse to ride, no beast of burden like ox or horse, ass leather from wild game	pig – especially important, did well, reproduced, feral, cow horse ox – beast of burden, allowed extensive cultivation dogs cattle chickens sheep rats – carrier of bubonic plague, typhus, ate foods goats

D. Ecological Consequences

Columbian exchange – has changed earth – inadvertently & intentionally

Impacts:

erosion from cultivation

decimation of grasslands

extinction of more species in the 500 years than evolution might in 500 years. "The Columbian exchange has left us with not a richer but a more impoverished genetic pool. We, all of the life on this planet, are the less for Columbus, and the impoverishment is bound to increase."

Questions for Study/Thought:
click here

References

Crosby, Jr., Alfred W. 1991. The Biological Consequences of 1492. Report on the Americas. 25 (2) 6 – 13 (September).
Crosby, AW, Jr. 1972. The Columbian Exchange. Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT
Kingsbury, John M. 1992. Columbus as a botanist. Cornell Alumni News. 23 – 27, October.
Rickey, VF. 1992. How Columbus encountered America. Mathematics Magazine 65 (4): 219 – 225.