Biochemistry Online: An Approach Based on Chemical Logic
Chemistry Online: An Approach Based on Chemical Logic
List of Figures
04/17/16
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Introduction
- Amino Acids React to Form Proteins
- Cyclization of simple sugars through hemiacetal links
- Hemiacetal/acetal chemistry
- Examples of complex carbohydrates
- Nucleic Acid Monomers
- Nucleic Acid Polymers
- Map and description of course
- Comparison of protein, carbohydrate and nucleic acid synthesis
Chapter 1: Lipid Structure
- Examples saponifiable and nonsaponifiable lipids
- Conformations of fatty acids
- Classification of common phosopholipids, glycolipids, and triacylglyerides
- Structures of common phospholipids
- Comparison of lipids with glycerol and sphingosine as backbones
- Conformations of butane and fatty acids.
- Glycerol - A prochiral molecule
- The biological synthesis of triacylglycerides and phosphatidic acid from prochiral glycerol.
- How an enzyme (glycerol kinase) transfers a PO4 from ATP to only the proR CH2OH of glycerol in formation of chiral triacylglycerols and phosphatidic acid.
- Phylogenetic Tree of Life
- Lipid Droplets
- A single chain amphiphile jumps into water!
- Structures of single and double chain amphipiles in water - Micelles and Bilayers
- Pentaphenyl fullerene (Ph5C60K) in water.
- Nucleophilic aromatic substitution
- Flip/Flop diffusion in liposomes A: Making vesicles with ESR active PC analog only in outer leaflet
- Flip/Flop diffusion in liposomes B: raising the temperature to initiate flip/flopdiffusion.
- Flip/Flop diffusion in bacterial cells A: labeling inner leaflet phospholipids with 32 P
- Flip/Flop diffusion in bacterial cells B: labeling Cells in A with TNBS to detect Flip/Flop
- Comparison of glycerol and sphingosine headgroup structure
- Lipid Rafts enriched in SM and Cholesterol
- Heat absorption and water: phase transitions
- Phase transition for DPPC (Dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine)
- Differences in Gel and Liquid Crystalline Phases in Phospholipids Bilayers
- TM di16:0 PC and di16:0 PA - Energy Diagram
- Phase Transition Temperatures for glycerophospholipids
- Equatorial cross sections of GUVs with multiple phases
- GUVs structures with multiple phases
- Permeability of liposome bilayers
- Fluorescent membrane probes
- Graph showings distribution of single chain amphiphiles in bulk aqueous solution
- Δμ for transfer of a sparingly soluble liquid solute into water
- Standard free energy of transfer of HC from aqueous solution to a pure liquid hydrocarbon.
- Transfer of Aliphatic Alcohols and Fatty Acids from Water to Pure Liquid; Thermodynamic Parameters for Transfer of Aliphatic Alcohols From the Pure Liquid to Water.
- Surface Area per Head Group vs no. of C in Amphiphile - Globular, Cylindrical, Planar Forms
- Lipid Phases
- Lipids - More than Grease - Mediators in Signal Transduction
- Fatty Acid Amides: Neurochemical Mediators
Chapter 2: Protein Structure
- Table: Structure and Property of the Naturally-Occurring Amino Acids
- Amino Acids React to Form Proteins
- Review: Comparison of protein, carbohydrate and nucleic acid synthesis
- Different Representations of a Polypeptide (heptapeptide rep)
- Stereochemistry of Amino Acids
- Titration curves for Gly, Glu, and Lys
- A review of the chemistry of aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acid derivatives
- Understanding the properties of proteins: low to high resolution
- Lysine Reactions 1
- Lysine Reactions 2
- Lysine Reactions 3
- Cysteine Reacions 1
- Cysteine Reactions 2
- Sulfur redox chemistry
- Disulfide - Cystine - Reactions
- Disulfide Oxidizing Agents - β-mercaptoethanol, dithiothreitol and phosphines
- TCEP reduction of disulfides
- Cleaving Disulfide Bonds in Proteins
- Redox state of Cysteine
- Reactions of Histidine
- Where is the H on His? Where is the Charge?
- His reacts with reasonably high selectivity with diethyl pyrocarbonate
- Post-translational modification of proteins
- Understanding the properties of proteins: low to high resolution
- Amino Acid absorbance profiles.
- Edman Degradation
- ESI Mass Spectrum of Apo-Myoglobin
- Linear and 3D Quadrupoles
- Peptide Fragmentation and Sequencing by MS/MS
- Annotated MS/MS spectra of human Glu1- fibrinopeptide B
- Secondary structure
- Tertiary structure
- Quaternary structure
- Peptide Bonds - MOs and Huckel Diagram
- The CD Spectra of Alpha-Helix, Beta-Sheet, and Random Coils
- X-Ray Structures and the Parthenon
- 1D NMR spectra of a protein
- 2D NOSEY spectra of a protein
- Extended Polypeptide Showing Planes and Phi/Psi Angle
- Trans arrangement of the alpha C's
- Ramachandran Plot
- Ramachandran plots showing Phi, Psi angles for Gly, Ala, Tyr, and Pro in actual proteins
- Lennard-Jones potential (6-12 potential)
- Right Handed Alpha helices -
- Parallel beta strands
- Antiparallel beta strands
- Twisted Beta Sheet/Saddle
- Beta Barrel
- Beta strand connections
- Reverse Turns
- Type I and Type II Reverse Turns
- Twisted sheets or saddles as well as beta barrels
- Why do amino acid propensities for secondary structure differ?
- Helix-loop-helix
- EF hand.
- Beta-hairpin, or beta-beta
- Greek Key motif:
- Beta-alpha-beta:
- Beta Helices
- Socks and protein folding
- Anfinsen Experiment: Folding of RNase
- Catalytic Shuffling of Disulfides with beta-mercaptoethanol
- Kinetic and thermodynamic measurements of proteins stability and folding
- Protein Folding Landscape:
- Reversible denatuation,
- Addition of iodoacetamide
- Bovine pancreatic trypsin inhbitor (BPTI): Folding Kinetics
- BPTI: Folding Pathway In Vitro
- Lactalbumin
- NMR in protein folding: exchange of all C's with ionizable protons, including, the amide H's
- Experimental data on model proteins
- Unfolding of RNase H with Optical Tweezers
- RNaseH Folding Transitions: Optical Trap
- Folding Lanscape of RNase H: Optical Tweezers
- Characteristics of Intrinsically Disordered Proteins
- The Protein Trinity: Ordered, Collapsed and Extended States
- Comparison of cytosolic prokaryotic and eukaryotic chaperone pathways
- Overview - Synthesis of Protein Destined for Secretion
- Signal Recognition Particle Complex
- Sec Dependent Pathway for Post-translational translocation
- Translocon Equilbrium Model
- GroEL and GroES.
- Denaturation Curves for Proteins
- Diagram showing relative contributions to the ΔG for protein folding.
- Denaturation temperature vs pH for proteins
- Thermodynamic cycle for formation of a H-bonded dimer of N-methylacetamide in a nonpolar solvent
- Free energy of transfer of amino acids from water
- Hofmeister Series
- Free energy of transfer of the nonpolar amino acids into 8M urea
- Reagents might interact with the surface of the protein.
- Thermodynamic cycle for urea denaturation of proteins
- Water Accessible Surface Area in Protein Unfolding
- Change in G, H and -TS for taking benzene from pure benzene to water.
- Heat of fusion, heat of vaporization, and heat capacity of water
- Thermal Denaturation of a protein using differential scanning calorimetry
- Heat capacity of proteins vs temperature
- Determination of ΔH for Protein Denaturation by Differential Scanning Calorimetry
- Heat Capacity Changes: A Molecular Interpretation
- Analogy between benzene solubility in water and protein denaturation
- Stabilization of Carbocations by Hyperconjugation
- Orbital involvement in H-bonds and n to pi* interactions in alpha helices
- Ramachandran plots of n to pi* interactions.
- Amino Acid Structure and propensity for secondary structure
- Secondary structure prediction
- Helical wheel projection
- Hydrophathy plot for chymotrypsinogen
- Types of membrane proteins
- Hydropathy plot for bovine rhodopsin
- Seven transmembrane helices for bovine rhodopsin
- Nanodisc with membrane protein
- 3-helix bundle
- Helices form early
- Simultaneous and quick partial helix formation and collapse
- Engrailed homeodomain 3 helix bundle protein
- Complete Folding Pathway of Engrailed Homeodomain by Experiment and Simulation
- Alzheimer's protein: beta amyloid protein and mutations
- Cartoon Models of PrPc and PrPsc
- Potential energy functions in protein mechanics and dynamics calculations
Chapter 3: Carbohydrates
- Glucose/fructose cyclization
- Glyceraldehyde perspective structures
- Glucose: Haworth and chair structures
- Alpha/beta anomers
- Monosaccharides to know
- Isomer review
- Sugars: configurations isomers
- Sugars: conformational isomers
- Sugar derivatives
- Hemiacetal/acetal chemistry
- Dissacharides: lactose and sucrose
- A closer look at reducing and nonreducing sugars: lactose and maltose
- Glycogen
- Homopolysaccharides in Chair Conformations
- Glc β (1-4) Glc link
- Glycosaminoglycans
- Peptidoglycans
- Teiochoicacid
- Gram positive membrane structure (after)
- Gram negative membrane structure (after)
- Heteropolysaccharides in Chair Conformations
- N-linked glycoproteins
- N-linked high mannose glycoproteins
- N-linked complex glycoproteins
- N-linked hybrid glycoproteins
- O-linked Glycoproteins
- Blood Group Antigens
- Proteoglycans
- Extracellmatrix
- Lipid anchors
- Biological Membranes: Simple to Complex
- Endothelial Cell/Leukocyte Interactions: Selectins, Integrins, and ICAMs
- A cool view of a membrane surface
- CHO symbolic nomenclature
- Ribosomes bind to an elongated, extensive organelle in the cell called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
- Endoplasmic reticulum
- Golgi apparatus
- Golgi
- Calnexin pathway
Chapter 4: DNA, Genomics, and Proteomics
- Human Chromosomes (with an extra copy of Chromosome 21, which causes Down syndrome)
- Spectralkaryotype chromosome analysis
- Human Chromosomes
- Packaging of DNA in the Nucleus
- Nucleosome
- Codon:Anticodon interactions between mRNA and tRNA
- Central Dogma Differences in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
- A view of genes and their products: simplicity to Complexity
- Mechanism of Intein Splicing
- Mutations
- Another View of Mutations
- Point mutations from mismatch pairing and Incorporation of Base Analogs
- Point Mutations from alkylating Agents
- Didexoynucleotides
- DNA sequencing using different fluorescent primers for each ddXTP reaction
- Cleaving DNA with the Restriction Enzyme EcoR1
- Cloning a Restriction Fragment into a Plasmid
- Another View
- Introns and Exons: Central Dogma in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
- Copying DNA in the test tube - the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
- Another View of PCR
- Site Specific Mutagenasis
- Nucleic Acid Hybridization
- Finding a mRNA sequence of minimal degeneracy.
- Southern Blotting
- Southern blot/PCR forensic analysis - restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)
Chapter 5: Binding
- M is free macromolecule, L is free ligand, and ML is macromolecule-ligand complex,
- ML vs L at Varying Kd's
- ML vs L at Even Lower Kd's
- ML vs L at a Very Low Kd!
- Y vs L and Y vs Lo when Lo is not >> Mo
- Comparison of Covalent Binding of Protons vs Noncovalent Binding of Ligand
- Saturation binding curve for dimerization of a macromolecule
- Isothermal Titration Calorimeter Cells
- Typical isothermal titration calorimetry data and analysis
- Titration calorimetry determination of Kd and ΔH for the interaction of gp120 and CD4
- Binding Curves that Explain Sigmoidal Titration Calorimetry Data for gp120 and CD4
- Surface Plasmon Resonance
- Negatively charged phospholipids in biological membranes
- Hyperbolic plot: Y vs L
- Double-reciprocal plot: 1/Y vs 1/L
- Scatchard plot: Y/L vs Y
- Semilog plot: Y vs log L
- Y vs log L: Differing Kd values
- Heme
- Heme-O2 Octahedral Complex
- Plots of Y (fractional saturation) vs L (pO2) are hyperbolic for Mb, but sigmoidal for Hb,
- Bohr Effect - Hemoglobin
- Conformation Changes on Oxygen Binding to Deoxy-Hemoglobin
- Salt Bridges in Deoxy Hb
- Salt Bridges in DeoxyHb
- C- or N- terminus
- 4 Ways to plot Mb and O2 plots
- Plots of Y vs L for Hb with varying degrees of cooperativity: n = 1, 2.8, and 4
- Hill Plot for Mb (n =1)
- Hill Plots: n = 1, 2.8, and 4
- Hill Plots For Hb Showing straight lines for n=2.8 and for n's=1 which model the low and high affinity sites.
- Hill Plot for Hb: Black line showing hypothetical actual curve
- Linked equilibrium in he MWC model
- Y Vs alpha with varying L and c - MWC MODEL
- Hb binding curves: Experimental, vs Theoretical Hill and MWC Equations
- Cooperativity as transition between two hyperbolic binding curves with different Kd's
- Equilbria in KNF Model
- Conformational Selection vs Induced Fit Binding
-
Types of Molecular Recognition Features in Intrinsically Disordered
Proteins
- Linked equilibrium: binding of H+, CO2 and O2 to hemoglobin
- A review of thermodynamic cycles - linked equilibria
- C2 Symmetry
- D2 Symmetry
- Mutations causing Dimer with C2 symmetry or Infinite Helix
- Equilibria in KNF Model
- Conformational Selection vs Induced Fit Binding
- Inhibitor-DNA-enzyme (IDE) - an engineered allosteric enzyme
- A combination of MWC and KNF: a modern structure view of structural changes in Hb on ligand binding
- Of mice and oxygen
- Receptor agonists/antagonist I
- Receptor agonists/antagonist II
- Process that affect the steady state concentration of a protein
- Positive and Negative Regulation of Gene Transcription
- Function of proteins in galactose utilization
- IPTG and Lactose Structures
- Induction of the Lac Operon
- Control of globin gene transcription
- Example of transcription complexes
- Upon absorbing red light, a phytochrome photoreceptor is converted from the inactive Pr form to the active Pfr form (permission)
- Enhancers of Transcription
- Eukaryotic promoters and regulatory regions
- Eukaryotic multisubunit general transcription apparatus
- AT and GC base pairs have available H bond donors and acceptors
- Lambda Repressor/DNA Complex
- helix-turn-helix in λrepressor/DNA complex
- H Bond interactions betweenλ repressor and DNA
- Zinc finger
- Leucine zippers
- Arg in T3c Transposase binding in Narrowed Minor Grove of T3c Transposon
- Yeast Two-Hybrid
- Protein Fragment Complementation
- Tandem Affinity Purification
- Activation of p53 as a transcription factor by phosphorylation and conformational change
- Canonical sequence for both activating and repressing p53RE
- Transcription Factors: Functional Classification
- Kinetics of protein-DNA binding
- Two proteins, A and B,
- Cooperative binding of B to the protein A-DNA complex.
- Chromatin
- Nucleosome
- Remodeling of Chromatin and Control of DNA Transcription
- Methylation of CpG
- RNA Interference: Antisense and Silencing
- RNAi-mediated gene silencing in mammals using short haripin RNA genes.
- Endosomal TLR3 Interaction with foreign RNA and DNA
- Recognition of PAMPs by TLRs
- An Overview of the Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaroytes
- DNase I Sensitivity of Nucleosome Bound and Free DNA
- Combinatorial Drug Development.
- Test tube and in situ synthesis of triazole inhibitors.
- Antisense RNA forms a dsRNA
- Cells can be made to make an antisense RNA within the cells
- Triple helix formation: binding to exposed H bond donors and acceptors of bases not involved in Watson-Crick H-bonding interactions.
- Peptide:nucleic acid hybrids
- Detection of Differential Gene Expression in Tumors and Normal Cells Using Microarray Chip
- Multivalent inhibitor of flu virus
- Multivalent Ligand Binding Models
Chapter 6: Transport and Kinetics
- Passive diffusion through a membrane - case 1: no receptor
- Faciliated diffusion through a membrane - case 2: receptor-mediated
- Models for facilitated diffusion of glucose
- Movement of Molecules and Particles Through Membranes
- Animation of ribitol diffusion through a glycerol channel using interactive molecular dynamics
- First Order Reaction:
- Second Order Reaction:
- Reversible First Order Reactions:
- Consecutive Irreversible First Order Reactions:
- Summary of vo vs S equations - Meanings of Km, kcat and Vm.
- Competitive inhibition
- Inhibition of Enzyme Activity - % Activity vs log [Inhibitor]
- Uncompetitive inhibition
- Noncompetitive inhibition
- Summary of Reversible Enzyme Inhibition
- Competitive and Uncompetitive Inhibition in vivo
- Agonist and Partial Agonists
- Antagonists: Competitive and Noncompetitive (Mixed)
- Temperature and Enzyme Activity
- pH and Enzyme Activity
- Chemical equations showing the mechanism of pH effects on enzyme catalyzed reactions
- Mathematic equations modeling pH effects on enzyme catalyzed reactions
- Graphs of pH effects on kinetic constants for enzyme catalyzed reactions
- Bisubstrate sequential kinetics
- Bisubstrate ping pong kinetics
- Aspartate transcarbamoylase: reactions
- Aspartate transcarbamoylase: Non Michaelis-Menten Kinetics
![Inhibition of Enzyme Activity - % Activity vs log [Inhibitor]](https://employees.csbsju.edu/hjakubowski/classes/ch331/transkinetics/inhibitionactivitylog.gif){kind=link}
Chapter 7: Catalysis
- Charge development in the transition state fore ester hydrolysis
- Mechanism of general acid catalysis
- Mechanism of general base catalysis
- Metal ion or electrostatic catalysis - stabilization of the transition state
- Metal ion catalysis - decreasing the pKa of water
- Nucleophilic covalent catalysis by pyridine
- Mechanism of Schiff base formation
- Mechanism of nucleophilic catalysis by amines - Schiff base formation .
- Electron Flow: Source to Sink
- L-Pro catalysis of an aldol condensation: possible mechanism
- Acyl transfer in aspirin derivatives
- Reaction of acetate with phenylacetate
- Intramoleuclar reactions of phenylsuccinate
- Intramolecular reactions of bicyclic phenylcarboxlate
- Three kinds of reactions, intermolecular, intramolecular, and enzyme-catalysed
- Binding of Ca2+ and EDTA
- Enyzmes bind the transition state more tightly than the substrate
- Phosphonamides: transition state analogs
- 3D model for binding substrate, transition state, and product to an enzyme
- Carboxypeptidase: mechanism of peptide bond cleavage
- Lysozyme: mechanism of acetal cleavage
- Lysozyme: alternative mechanism
- Amide/ester substrates for chymotrypsin
- Theoretical microscopic titration curves
- Diisopropylphosphofluoridate
- Tos-L-Phe-chloromethyl ketone
- Serine Protease Mechanism
- Oxyanion hole in serine proteases: TS stabilzation
- Sarin
- Cleavage of beta amyloid precursor protein: protease and cofactors
- Chymotrypin activity - DMSO to acetone
- Ribozyme tertiary structures
- Ribozyme: mechanisms of catalysis
- Self-cleavage in the hairpin ribozyme
- Active Site of Hairpin Ribozyme: Transition State Binding
- Prokaryotic Ribosme - P and A sites
- Mechanism Peptide Bond Formation by the Ribosome
Chapter 8: Oxidation/Phosphorylation
- Dioxygen: MO's for ground state triplet and excited state singlet dioxygen
- Dioxygen reduction: MO's and products
- Triplet O2 - Ground State chemistry
- Unsaturated fatty acids are extra reactive at the methylene C that separate the double bonds
- Single O2 - Excited State chemistry
- Superoxide
- Peroxide chemistry
- Hydroxyl free radical
- Oxidative Modification of DNA
- Oxidative Modification of Proteins
- Oxidative Modification of Lipids
- Oxidized LDL uptake
- Conversion of indigo carmen to isatin sulfonic acid
- Cholesterol/ozone reaction
- Ozonolysis mechanism
- Molecular Orbitals: NO
- Cell response to hypoxia
- Antioxidant vitamins (E, C, A)
- Mechanisms of combustion reactions
- Permanganate
- Chromate
- NAD+ is a derivative of nicotinic acid or nicotinamide
- All NAD+/NADH reactions in the body involve 2 electron hydride transfers
- derivatives of riboflavin.
- FAD/FADH2 can undergo 1 OR 2 electrons transfers
- Oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase.
- Stereochemistry of NAD+/NADH redox reactions with alcohol dehydrogenase
- FAD oxidation reactions: mechanisms
- Structure of resveratrol: activator of Sir2 deacetylase activity
- Reaction of NAD+ and Acetyl-Lys side chains: possible catalytic mechanism for yeast Sir2
- Trp and Tyr chemistry
- Monooxygenases: possible mechanism
- Cytochrome p450's: possible mechanism
- Cytochrome p450's: activation of carcinogens
- Inducible on exposure to nonpolar aromatic molecules such as dioxin.
- Reaction Pathyway of P450cam
- Arachadonic Acid Bound to the Active Site of Mouse Cyclooxygenase
- Prostatglandin Synthesis: Possible Mechanism
- Oxidases: Examples
- Monoamine oxidases
- Hemoglobin (and myglobin) serve as carriers of dioxygen.
- Cytochrome C
- cytochrome P450's
- Structure and hydrolysis of ATP
- High energy molecules
- Mechanism: coupled synthesis of a carboxylic amide
- Mechanism: ATP-dependent peptide bond synthesis
- Mechanism of OX-PHOS in glycolysis: glyceraldehye-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and 3-phosphglycerate kinase
- Cori Cycle
- Mitochondria
- ELlectron transport and proton gradient formation in the mitochondria
- Detailed View of Oxidative Phosphorylation from Kanehisa Laboratories and the KEGG project: www.kegg.org
- Lipophilic electron carrier, ubiquinone, UQ
- FoF1ATPase, also called ATP synthase,
- Overview of metabolism: Aerobic and Anerobic Generation of NADH, Regeneration of NAD, and Coupling Oxidation/Phosphorylation
- Uncoupling Aerobic Ox/Phos
- Boyers three-state conformational model (L-O-T) for ATP synthesis.
- fluorescein-labeled protein filament called actin to the g subunit
- Smaller colloidal gold bead (40 nm diameter) with less frictional resistance
- Rotation rate becomes continuous and saturates
- Coupling Proton Flow in F0 to Conformation Change
- ATP synthase Complex
- A simple mathematical derivation: Electrochemical Potential
- Two different proton translocating methods
- Metabolic Pathways in Proliferating Cells
- Resonance energy transfer
- Reaction centers
- Antennae Proteins
- Electron transfer
- Light reaction of photosynthesis
- Detailed View of Light Reaction of Photosynthesis
- OEC - Mechanism of Water Oxidation
Chapter 9: Signal Transduction
- Many species are transported into the cell or into intracellular organelles against a concentration gradient
- Types of Active Transport
- Na-K-ATPase Model
- HCl production in stomach
- Transport of calcium ions
- Lactose Transport
- Glucose Transport
- Proton transfer in bacteriorhodopsin
- neurotransmitter into the synapse between the cells
- Visualizing the transmembrane potential in K+ loaded vesicles + a nongated K+ channel.
- Depolarization of transmembrane potential
- Na and K permeabilities during depolarization
- Five membrane proteins
- Patch clamp technique
- Opening and closing of single channels
- Mechanism for gating of the acetylcholine channel
- Puffer fish
- Tetrodoxin and Saxitoxin - Structures
- Ion selectively of the sodium channel
- Electrostatics of the K+ channel
- K+ Channel from Steptomyces lividans
- S4 paddle voltage sensor of the voltage-dependent K+ channel from Aeropyrum pernix.
- Glutamate receptor ligands
- Mechanisms of Channel Gating
- five major protein kinase
- cyclic AMP
- G proteins and adenylate cyclase activation
- Activation of glycogen phosphorylase through activation of PKA.
- Receptor/Ligand-Dependent Protein Kinases
- Beta-andrenergic:Gs complex
- Initial Signaling on Binding of Insulin to the Insulin Receptor
- Phosphorylated Phosphatidylinositol derivatives
- PTP Super Family
- Cell Cycle
- Neurotransmission: Gating through G Linked Receptors
- Distribution of Molecular Functions of 26,383 Genes
- Mitochondria Changes During Apoptosis
- CD95:CD95L Interactions
- Cell Receptor-Mediated Apoptosis
- Apoptosis Wall Chart
- Aplysia sensory cells in Habituation
- Aplysis sensory cells in sensitization
- Changes in Sensory Cells in Habituation
- Sensory regions of the brain
- Somatosensory Map - Homunculus
Capstone: Origin of Life
- Abiotic Synthesis of 2-amino-oxazole
- Abiotic synthesis of a ribocytidine phosphate without condensation of a preformed ribose and cytosine
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